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Blog monetization is the key objective for every blogger.
However, you have first to figure out the methods for blog monetization.
Having said that, you have quite a few methods by which you can monetize your blog.
One of the best methods is to become a publisher.
For this, you have to run ads on your blog. These ads are served by Ad Networks, so you have to join an Ad Network or Ad Networks.
As a matter of fact, there are plenty of Ad Networks out there. So the Big decision for you is to choose a powerful Ad Network(s) which can generate the highest revenue for you.
I perfectly understand that choosing the Best Ad Networks is not an easy task. Especially for newbie bloggers who are making their first attempt in online publishing.
That’s the reason which prompted me to come up with this post where I list out Best Ad Networks for Publishers.
Here, you have to understand that Publishers are bloggers or website owners who want to run Ads on their blogs or websites for revenue generation.
Then, there are various types of Ad Networks. Some cater to a particular type of Ads and others give you the option of having different types of Ads on your blog or website.
There’s no fool-proof method of judging which Ad Network works best for you. You have to experiment with Ad Networks to find out which ones are generating the highest revenue for your blog or website.
Here, we have selected some of best Ad Networks for Bloggers which are secure, trustworthy, and give you the best opportunity to monetize your blog or website. They serve millions of Ad impressions daily, have a large network of advertisers and publishers, and provide decent money to publishers.
So, if you want to monetize your blog, you have to pick out the best Ad Networks. The list will give you a good lot of options and make easy for you in picking the most suitable Ad Network for your blog or website.
These networks are not of specific ad types we have listed top ad networks of various advertising options. We have listed traditional Contextual or CPC networks, CPM networks, POP-UP/POP-Under Networks as well as affiliate networks which will help you to monetize your website or blog in various ways.
Now, let us move on and see some of the best Ad Networks for Publishers.

10 Top Ad Networks for Publishers / Bloggers


1. Google Adsense

Google Adsense is recognized as the world’s largest and best online advertising network. Most importantly, it’s free and provides you the opportunity to earn money by placing ads on your website. It also happens to be the oldest online advertising network still in existence.
It is much popular with publishers and advertisers alike. Its performance and eCPMs are tough to beat.
However, to get approved by Google Adsense is not easy. You have to follow Adsense quality guideline to get approved.
It is mainly known for serving CPC Ads and CPM Ads. It shows mobile ads, video ads, search result ads, display ads, and banner ads. The ads are relevant to your content.
You can choose the type of ads that best fit your website. It has the most extensive network of online advertisers. It makes sure that only the highest paying ads go live on your website, so you get the most for your ads.
Its control panel is pretty basic but highly functional. Reporting is the significant advantage of Google Adsense. It delivers results in real time.
It even offers several advanced features.
There is “no” traffic minimum with Google Adsense.
Display Ad Unit Sizes Available: 728×90, 468×60, 234×60, 125×125, 120×600, 160×600, 180×150, 120×240, 200×200, 250×250, 300×250, 336×280, 300×600, 320×50, 970×90.
Payment Methods: Check, and Direct Deposit
Payment Terms: Net-30.
Minimum Payout Threshold: $100
Google Adsense Ad Network

2. Propeller Ads

Propeller Ads is one of the fastest growing CPM Ads Network. It provides multiple Ad Formats. Propeller Ads makes it easy for you to select the best-performing ad campaign. It serves various Ad Models such as CPM, CPC, CPA, and CPL.
It ensures high ad quality by performing manual checks on advertisers. Propeller Ads provides publishers with on-time payouts, detailed real-time reporting, and a personal account manager. It endeavors to provide the highest revenue per visitor. It has a multitude of display advertising solutions.
Propeller Ads offers multi-channel monetization solutions and exclusive offers. You can look up to 100% traffic monetization. It’s a primary characteristic of Propeller Ads. You can easily monetize global web and mobile traffic across devices and platforms with the highest eCPM rates.
Another hallmark of Propeller Ads is its comprehensive list of direct advertisers. Its advanced optimization technology gets you the best offers from around the world. All this sums up to highest revenue delivered with the most relevant ads for all your online content.
Its publisher’s dashboard lets you monetize your traffic in no time whatsoever. You get to have in-depth reports and lots of ad channel management tools.
Propeller Ads is always striving for excellence in delivering better performance for publishers and advertisers. They offer support as and when you need help you to achieve your goals more.
It’s one of the best Propeller Ads self-service Advertising Network out there. It is designed to deliver peak performance.
It’s a multi-channel advertising solution for display, desktop, video, mobile, and in-app. It employs the latest technologies and smartest algorithms thereby ensuring that its publishers and advertisers are always one step ahead of their competition.
With Propeller Ads, publishers can look forward to receiving maximum earnings from their site. It offers most value out of an advertising network.
They pay on the NET 30 terms. They have multiple payment options such as PayPal, eCheck, and Wire.
Payment Method: PayPal, Bank Wire, Payoneer, Webmoney, ePayments, EPESE
Minimum Payout Threshold: $100
Propeller Ads Ad Network

3. Adsterra Network

Adsterra is another immensely popular premium ad network which serves as much as 50 billion geo-targeted ad impression a month. It provides Ad Models such as CPC, CPM, and CPA. It offers innovative advertising solutions for web and mobile advertisers and publishers worldwide.
Adsterra supports publishers from all verticals and assures the monetization of their ad inventory. It provides various ad formats for the web and mobile platform including display banners, interstitial, Popunders, direct links, sliders, and Pushup. It guarantees the highest possible ad quality and security. Publishers get on-time payments.
Adsterra was established in 2013. It was launched in Scotland.
Its unique and unparalleled approach to ad formats has led this ads network to become a leading & premium ads network in the world with the highest priority on quality service. Adsterra is now the fastest expanding ads network online.
As far as ads impressions are concerned, Adsterra serves over 10 billion unique ad impressions each month. The ad impressions are geo-targeted, displaying around the world. It has publishers & advertisers from around the globe from as much as 190 different countries. And this number is continuously growing as they expand into more countries.
They offer both website advertising as well as mobile advertising for advertisers and publishers.
They offer ad types such as CPM, CPC, and CPA.
Adsterra offers unique and innovative advertising displays thereby providing monetization options both on web and mobile.
They provide lots of effective ad formats such as display banners, pop-unders, interstitials, direct links, Web Push and video banners. They specialize in pop-under ads.
Minimum Payout: $100
Payment Methods: PayPal, Wire Transfer, Web Money, Paxum, Payoneer, and Payza.
Adsterra Ad Network

4. Revcontent

Revcontent is regarded as the fastest growing content recommendation network in the world. John Lemp founded it in 2013.
It powers over 250 billion content recommendations each month. It has earned the status of being the largest ad network globally. Revcontent serves some of the top content marketers such as Forbes, CBS, and NBC News among others.
Revcontent is recognized as one of the most selective and premium native ad networks in the world. It has grown to be one of the biggest content recommendation platforms on the internet.
Revcontent currently serves 100 billion content recommendations a month across the globe. It supports transparent reporting and easy customization options for publishers.
Revcontent offers excellent performance and high-quality service. Revcontent uses highly responsive widgets, infinite scroll, gallery implementations and unlimited API customizations. The ad formats are suitable for publishers and advertisers alike.
However, Revcontent is very strict as per the acceptance is concerned. It rejects as much as 94% of applicants. Well, those who join benefit from the highest eCPM.
They have a minimum traffic requirement of 50,000 visits per month. They want that you have high-quality content providing value to visitors. Your website should not contain objectionable content such as pornography, malware, and involve in hacking activities.
Revcontent offers a wide range of widget options such as media, entertainment, and technology widgets. It is highly transparent with accurate reporting. The interface is very well intuitive and has the highly transparent reporting in the industry. You get real-time statistics about your website’s performance.
They offer one of the best supports in the industry.
Revcontent pays on the Net30 basis.
The minimum payout is $50 via PayPal.
Revcontent Ad Network

5. Infolinks

Infolinks is one of the best Ad Networks that enables publishers to monetize their website to the optimum level. It mainly provides In-Text Ads. So, if you have a text-based site or a blog, and then Infolinks might prove to be an excellent option for generating revenue by advertising on your website.
They don’t cover spaces so you can use other banner ads from other Ad Network for earning revenue for site content. Infolinks Ads are targeted for any relevant keyword from your content. They have no minimum traffic requirement for publishers. They work with the biggest advertisers in the world such as Facebook, Amazon, eBay, Microsoft, etc.
Infolinks offer excellent CPM rate anywhere from $7 to $17.
Infolinks has come to be best In-text advertising network. It is helping publishers as well as advertisers in a fantastic fashion. It is one of the best alternatives to Google Adsense.
Infolinks is a very promising ads network with:
  • Easy sign-up process.
  • It allows you to generate more revenue from your blog
  • You can easily integrate code to your blog
  • Minimum payout is $50
  • Multiple sources for getting payments such as PayPal
  • New technology for getting more clicks
  • It uses In3 Technology for increasing revenue of a blog or websites
  • A large number of advertisers and publishers
  • Mobile Ads Optimization for mobile traffic
  • Superb Customer Support from their team
Payment Method: PayPal, Wire Transfer, eChecks, Payoneer
Minimum Payout Threshold: $50
Learn more about Infolinks – Infolinks Review
Infolinks Ad Network

6. Media.net

Media.net is one of the most popular Ad Network for Publishers. It provides an excellent opportunity for publishers to maximize revenue from their online content. It has one of the largest pools of advertisers in the world.
Media.net serves contextual ads. It also supports desktop interstitial, in-content native, and mobile docked ads. It ensures a 100% fill rate across all verticals and ad formats. Some of its publishers include Reuters, Esquire, Elle, Forbes, Cosmopolitan, etc.
Media.net offers amazingly higher earnings and has earned great feedback from scores of publishers. Its core focus is on developing innovative monetization products for digital publishers.
In fact, Media.net has grown to become one of the largest contextual ads program globally. They have a global footprint with offices in New York, Los Angeles, Dubai, Bangalore, Zurich, and Mumbai. They have clients which include “Big” names such as Forbes, Hearst, Yahoo, MSN, Kiplinger, Reuters, The Street, NY Daily News, and many more.
Its implementation technology is HTML, JavaScript.
Creating a new ad unit with Media.net is a simple enough process. You have to choose an ad size, design layout, and customize colors. Implement coding on your site with simple copy and pasting a few lines of HTML code into your webpage’s source code.
It is compatible with Google Adsense.
Payment Terms: Net-30
Minimum Payout Threshold: $100
Payment Methods Available: Wire transfer or PayPal
Media.net Ad Network

7. RevenueHits

If one thing that can describe RevenueHits in the best way it’s this one. It’s an ad network for publishers that generate maximum profit for your site for minimum effort.
It’s the easiest and the smartest way of converting your digital assets into an income property. With RevenueHits, you get the industry’s best performing offers. Use its intuitive platform to optimize earnings easily.
If you are still confused, here’s a fantastic caveat for you.
RevenueHits has over 20,000 publishers worldwide. And why these large numbers? It’s a no-brainer.
Simply because RevenueHits delivers the most relevant ads to your audience. It boosts the conversion rate and enables you to make more money from your ad space.
RevenueHits delivers the best offers in the industry leveraging on its large, cutting-edge digital platform with unrivaled optimization technology.
It’s easy to join & simple to use. Sign up in just one simple step and get going with its intuitive dashboard. With RevenueHits, you can generate profit from your website’s ad space irrespective of the amount of traffic you have.
There’s a variety of ad types with RevenueHits. You can benefit from display banners, Interstitial, Pop Ads, Slider, Notifier, Top Banner, and more.
You get the best rates in the industry.
It has a big range of in-house online advertisers that acquire your traffic without commission. It has flexible pricing models such as CPA, CPI, CPL, and CPM. And that’s not all.
It has 5000+ advertisers in different verticals such as Dating, Mobile, Shopping, Coupons, Travel, Gaming, Software, Entertainment, and Lead Generation.
RevenueHits serves over 2 billion ad impressions across all GEOs. It ensures 100% fill rate. Your visitors get to have the most relevant offers based on your website’s content. It employs smart algorithms helping you to improve your performance in real time.
The platform uses reliable multilevel tracking & reporting systems. It offers responsive ads so that each visitor on your site is fully monetized.
The icing on the cake is its world-class support.
Payment Methods: PayPal, Payoneer, and Wire.
Minimum Payout: $20 for PayPal & Payoneer and $500 for Wire
RevenueHits Ad Network

8. Clicksor

Clicksor has been there for a long time. It is a Canada-based Ad Network. It has grown to become one of the most popular contextual advertising networks today.
Clicksor is one of the most suitable alternatives to Google Adsense. It works by placing ads on a website that are fit to be relevant to the website’s content. It furnishes “relevant” advertisements which encourage more users to click through.
Advertisers register with Clicksor and pay to display their ads on relevant websites. Publishers earn a commission when one of these advertisements is clicked on their site.
They promptly address customer concerns by providing them with formidable services. Clicksor stands out as the best contextual ad network.
It helps to boost your advertiser earnings.
The Clicksor user interface helps you to create new ads with ease. You need to select between Regular Setup and Premium Setup. However, the Regular Set Up is the most popular option. It offers multiple choices such as layer banners, in-page banners, pop-under ads, inline text ads as well as interstitial ads.
Mobile Ad Units are available.
It serves over 900 million ad impressions on its publisher network sites. Clicksor offers various ad formats including banner ads, in-text ads, interstitials, rich media, layer ads, pop-up ads, pop-under, etc. It is a bid based CPC and CPM Ads Network.
The Clicksor control panel requires some learning curve. However, once you get used to it, you can efficiently use it to your advantage.
Creating new units is relatively easy when compared to other ad networks. The process is simple, straightforward, and takes only a few minutes.
Payment Terms: Net-15 Schedule.
Payment Methods: Check, PayPal, Wire Transfer
Minimum Payout Threshold: $50
Clicksor Ad Network

9. PopAds

PopAds is mainly a pop-under ad network. The network mainly deals with Pop traffic. It is a fast, efficient and secure advertising network.
Publishers can monetize their website traffic through high-quality pop-under ads. It offers competent rates to publishers who depend on website traffic and website content. It also provides perfect support as well.
It’s an ad network wherein you pay for each pop displayed to the final user. So, it uses pay per view or Pay per impression model.
PopAds has now grown to become one of the most well-known ad networks in the world of affiliate marketing. In fact, PopAds is one of the oldest ad networks around. It is running successfully since 2010. It functions as a premium & specialized pop-under network.
PopAds has an extensive inventory list and many available payment methods. It has a high Alexa ranking (#61 position) including websites from all over the world. PopAds offers ads for Adult as well as Mainstream content websites.
Ad types include PopUnder, Popup, Tabunder, and Tabup. PopAds is one of the highest paying ad networks. It has an easy and super quick website approval process.
PopAds has a lot of traffic and options for setting up campaigns. PopAds has very liberal terms and is not hyper after high-traffic websites from publishers. It supports all niches including adult and dating.
It has no minimum traffic requirements.
The registration process with PopAds hardly takes few minutes. Either as a Publisher or Advertiser type, the platform will ask you to fill out ten standard fields.
After registration, it offers all the features for both Publishers and Advertisers on one account only. PopAds has a simple, functional, and user-friendly interface.
The interface has three main sections:
  • Advertiser’s Panel
  • Publisher’s Panel
  • Account Manager
There’s a section with active campaigns. A separate section for creating a new campaign. There’s even a report section for tracking your campaign’s performance live.
You also get an inventory section with inventory variety. PopAds offers traffic for more than 100 different countries.
Payment Methods: PayPal, AlertPay, and Wire Transfer
Minimum Payout Threshold: $5
PopAds Ad Network

10. Chitika

Chitika is one of the largest Ad Network with over 300,000 publishers. It serves Ads on CPC Model. Its approval process for new publishers is pretty straightforward. Moreover, it does not have any minimum traffic requirement. With Chitika, you can make money if you have traffic.
It provides you the right mix of ads with Real Time Bidding. It furnishes an online publisher control panel with which you can easily monitor your ad impressions and revenue. Chitika is continually evolving and makes every effort to maximize your yield.
Over the years, Chitika has evolved as a display advertising network and offered services to both publishers and advertisers alike.
Chitika overall functionality involves allowing both publishers and advertisers to include display advertising into their overall business plans. It offers advertisements that are matched with websites promoting similar content. They display ads driven by content on each given webpage.
They offer several distinct advertising options in the form of display/text ad units, list units, and mobile ads.
In fact, Chitika is a popular Google Adsense alternative. Its control panel is simple and straightforward. It offers thorough and informative reporting.
With Chitika, you can monetize your web content and make extra money.
Payment Terms: Net-30
Payment Methods: Check and PayPal.
Minimum Payout Threshold: $10
Chitika Ad Network
We hope that the presentation, Best Ad Networks for Publishers proves immensely helpful for you in selecting the right Ad Network. Do share your comments with us.





Contant Questions:
1) What is Truecaller ?
2) How Truecaller Works ?
3) Business Model of True Caller in HINDI
4) True caller Mobile App Working & How it earn money online
5) Never use or install truecaller on your phone ?
6) Secret or Hidden trick to use Truecaller
7) Save your Privacy Online
8) Truecaller: Mobile Phone Search
9) Get Location of Mobile Numbers from Truecaller

Contant Question :
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2) Tracking someone realtime Location from IP
3) Track Mobile Phone online
4) IP Logger website real truth
5) What is IP Address in HINDI
6) How Airtel, JIO maintain logs of IP Address
7) How to access realtime location record of anyone from website
8) Who decide which IP is from which city & State?
9) Trace or Track IP Address or realtime location of mobile online
10) How POLICE TRACE IP Address or stolen mobile

Contant Question:
1) How Movie Earn Money ?
2) Salman Khan Salary & Amir Khan Per Movie Fee
3) How Producer Make Money from Investing into Movies ?
4) Different Types of Film Rights from Movie Earn Money
5) Internet rights, DTH Rights, Non theatrical film rights, Pay Per View, Overseas Theatrical film rights in HINDI
6) How Distributors Earn Money from Bollywood Movies
7) Different Commissions Rate for Movie Theaters like PVR, Fun Cinema, Cinepolis, INOX, Carnival Cinemas, Mukta A2 Cinemas, etc.
8) Why Movies Cost So Much To Make ?
9) Film budgeting Explained in HINDI 


1) What is Cookies ?
2) How Cookies Can harm your PRIVACY ?
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8) Disable third-party cookies in Google Chrome & Firefox
9) Removing and Blocking Ad Cookies, Browser by Browser
10) How to prevent ads from following you online in HINDI
11) What is an Opt Out Cookie & How to block certain Ads online











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How Internet Works ?

Contents

  1. Introduction
  2. Where to Begin? Internet Addresses
  3. Protocol Stacks and Packets
  4. Networking Infrastructure
  5. Internet Infrastructure
  6. The Internet Routing Hierarchy
  7. Domain Names and Address Resolution
  8. Internet Protocols Revisited
  9. Application Protocols: HTTP and the World Wide Web
  10. Application Protocols: SMTP and Electronic Mail
  11. Transmission Control Protocol
  12. Internet Protocol
  13. Wrap Up
  14. Resources
  15. Bibliography

Introduction

How does the Internet work? Good question! The Internet’s growth has become explosive and it seems impossible to escape the bombardment of www.com‘s seen constantly on television, heard on radio, and seen in magazines. Because the Internet has become such a large part of our lives, a good understanding is needed to use this new tool most effectively.
This whitepaper explains the underlying infrastructure and technologies that make the Internet work. It does not go into great depth, but covers enough of each area to give a basic understanding of the concepts involved. For any unanswered questions, a list of resources is provided at the end of the paper. Any comments, suggestions, questions, etc. are encouraged and may be directed to the author at the email address given above.

Where to Begin? Internet Addresses

Because the Internet is a global network of computers each computer connected to the Internet must have a unique address. Internet addresses are in the form nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn where nnn must be a number from 0 – 255. This address is known as an IP address. (IP stands for Internet Protocol; more on this later.)
The picture below illustrates two computers connected to the Internet; your computer with IP address 1.2.3.4 and another computer with IP address 5.6.7.8. The Internet is represented as an abstract object in-between. (As this paper progresses, the Internet portion of Diagram 1 will be explained and redrawn several times as the details of the Internet are exposed.)
Diagram 1
Diagram 1
If you connect to the Internet through an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you are usually assigned a temporary IP address for the duration of your dial-in session. If you connect to the Internet from a local area network (LAN) your computer might have a permanent IP address or it might obtain a temporary one from a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server. In any case, if you are connected to the Internet, your computer has a unique IP address.
Check It Out – The Ping Program
If you’re using Microsoft Windows or a flavor of Unix and have a connection to the Internet, there is a handy program to see if a computer on the Internet is alive. It’s called ping, probably after the sound made by older submarine sonar systems.1 If you are using Windows, start a command prompt window. If you’re using a flavor of Unix, get to a command prompt. Typeping www.yahoo.com. The ping program will send a ‘ping’ (actually an ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) echo request message) to the named computer. The pinged computer will respond with a reply. The ping program will count the time expired until the reply comes back (if it does). Also, if you enter a domain name (i.e. www.yahoo.com) instead of an IP address, ping will resolve the domain name and display the computer’s IP address. More on domain names and address resolution later.

Protocol Stacks and Packets

So your computer is connected to the Internet and has a unique address. How does it ‘talk’ to other computers connected to the Internet? An example should serve here: Let’s say your IP address is 1.2.3.4 and you want to send a message to the computer 5.6.7.8. The message you want to send is “Hello computer 5.6.7.8!”. Obviously, the message must be transmitted over whatever kind of wire connects your computer to the Internet. Let’s say you’ve dialed into your ISP from home and the message must be transmitted over the phone line. Therefore the message must be translated from alphabetic text into electronic signals, transmitted over the Internet, then translated back into alphabetic text. How is this accomplished? Through the use of a protocol stack. Every computer needs one to communicate on the Internet and it is usually built into the computer’s operating system (i.e. Windows, Unix, etc.). The protocol stack used on the Internet is referred to as the TCP/IP protocol stack because of the two major communication protocols used. The TCP/IP stack looks like this:
Protocol LayerComments
Application Protocols LayerProtocols specific to applications such as WWW, e-mail, FTP, etc.
Transmission Control Protocol LayerTCP directs packets to a specific application on a computer using a port number.
Internet Protocol LayerIP directs packets to a specific computer using an IP address.
Hardware LayerConverts binary packet data to network signals and back.
(E.g. ethernet network card, modem for phone lines, etc.)
If we were to follow the path that the message “Hello computer 5.6.7.8!” took from our computer to the computer with IP address 5.6.7.8, it would happen something like this:
Diagram 2
Diagram 2
  1. The message would start at the top of the protocol stack on your computer and work it’s way downward.
  2. If the message to be sent is long, each stack layer that the message passes through may break the message up into smaller chunks of data. This is because data sent over the Internet (and most computer networks) are sent in manageable chunks. On the Internet, these chunks of data are known as packets.
  3. The packets would go through the Application Layer and continue to the TCP layer. Each packet is assigned a port number. Ports will be explained later, but suffice to say that many programs may be using the TCP/IP stack and sending messages. We need to know which program on the destination computer needs to receive the message because it will be listening on a specific port.
  4. After going through the TCP layer, the packets proceed to the IP layer. This is where each packet receives it’s destination address, 5.6.7.8.
  5. Now that our message packets have a port number and an IP address, they are ready to be sent over the Internet. The hardware layer takes care of turning our packets containing the alphabetic text of our message into electronic signals and transmitting them over the phone line.
  6. On the other end of the phone line your ISP has a direct connection to the Internet. The ISPs routerexamines the destination address in each packet and determines where to send it. Often, the packet’s next stop is another router. More on routers and Internet infrastructure later.
  7. Eventually, the packets reach computer 5.6.7.8. Here, the packets start at the bottom of the destination computer’s TCP/IP stack and work upwards.
  8. As the packets go upwards through the stack, all routing data that the sending computer’s stack added (such as IP address and port number) is stripped from the packets.
  9. When the data reaches the top of the stack, the packets have been re-assembled into their original form, “Hello computer 5.6.7.8!”

Networking Infrastructure

So now you know how packets travel from one computer to another over the Internet. But what’s in-between? What actually makes up the Internet? Let’s look at another diagram:
Diagram 3
Diagram 3
Here we see Diagram 1 redrawn with more detail. The physical connection through the phone network to the Internet Service Provider might have been easy to guess, but beyond that might bear some explanation.
The ISP maintains a pool of modems for their dial-in customers. This is managed by some form of computer (usually a dedicated one) which controls data flow from the modem pool to a backbone or dedicated line router. This setup may be referred to as a port server, as it ‘serves’ access to the network. Billing and usage information is usually collected here as well.
After your packets traverse the phone network and your ISP’s local equipment, they are routed onto the ISP’s backbone or a backbone the ISP buys bandwidth from. From here the packets will usually journey through several routers and over several backbones, dedicated lines, and other networks until they find their destination, the computer with address 5.6.7.8. But wouldn’t it would be nice if we knew the exact route our packets were taking over the Internet? As it turns out, there is a way…
Check It Out – The Traceroute Program
If you’re using Microsoft Windows or a flavor of Unix and have a connection to the Internet, here is another handy Internet program. This one is called traceroute and it shows the path your packets are taking to a given Internet destination. Like ping, you must use traceroute from a command prompt. In Windows, use tracert www.yahoo.com. From a Unix prompt, type traceroute www.yahoo.com. Like ping, you may also enter IP addresses instead of domain names. Traceroute will print out a list of all the routers, computers, and any other Internet entities that your packets must travel through to get to their destination.
If you use traceroute, you’ll notice that your packets must travel through many things to get to their destination. Most have long names such as sjc2-core1-h2-0-0.atlas.digex.net and fddi0-0.br4.SJC.globalcenter.net. These are Internet routers that decide where to send your packets. Several routers are shown in Diagram 3, but only a few. Diagram 3 is meant to show a simple network structure. The Internet is much more complex.

Internet Infrastructure

The Internet backbone is made up of many large networks which interconnect with each other. These large networks are known as Network Service Providers or NSPs. Some of the large NSPs are UUNet, CerfNet, IBM, BBN Planet, SprintNet, PSINet, as well as others. These networks peer with each other to exchange packet traffic. Each NSP is required to connect to three Network Access Points or NAPs. At the NAPs, packet traffic may jump from one NSP’s backbone to another NSP’s backbone. NSPs also interconnect at Metropolitan Area Exchanges or MAEs. MAEs serve the same purpose as the NAPs but are privately owned. NAPs were the original Internet interconnect points. Both NAPs and MAEs are referred to as Internet Exchange Points or IXs. NSPs also sell bandwidth to smaller networks, such as ISPs and smaller bandwidth providers. Below is a picture showing this hierarchical infrastructure.
Diagram 4
Diagram 4
This is not a true representation of an actual piece of the Internet. Diagram 4 is only meant to demonstrate how the NSPs could interconnect with each other and smaller ISPs. None of the physical network components are shown in Diagram 4 as they are in Diagram 3. This is because a single NSP’s backbone infrastructure is a complex drawing by itself. Most NSPs publish maps of their network infrastructure on their web sites and can be found easily. To draw an actual map of the Internet would be nearly impossible due to it’s size, complexity, and ever changing structure.

The Internet Routing Hierarchy

So how do packets find their way across the Internet? Does every computer connected to the Internet know where the other computers are? Do packets simply get ‘broadcast’ to every computer on the Internet? The answer to both the preceding questions is ‘no’. No computer knows where any of the other computers are, and packets do not get sent to every computer. The information used to get packets to their destinations are contained in routing tables kept by each router connected to the Internet.
Routers are packet switches. A router is usually connected between networks to route packets between them. Each router knows about it’s sub-networks and which IP addresses they use. The router usually doesn’t know what IP addresses are ‘above’ it. Examine Diagram 5 below. The black boxes connecting the backbones are routers. The larger NSP backbones at the top are connected at a NAP. Under them are several sub-networks, and under them, more sub-networks. At the bottom are two local area networks with computers attached.
Diagram 5
Diagram 5
When a packet arrives at a router, the router examines the IP address put there by the IP protocol layer on the originating computer. The router checks it’s routing table. If the network containing the IP address is found, the packet is sent to that network. If the network containing the IP address is not found, then the router sends the packet on a default route, usually up the backbone hierarchy to the next router. Hopefully the next router will know where to send the packet. If it does not, again the packet is routed upwards until it reaches a NSP backbone. The routers connected to the NSP backbones hold the largest routing tables and here the packet will be routed to the correct backbone, where it will begin its journey ‘downward’ through smaller and smaller networks until it finds it’s destination.

Domain Names and Address Resolution

But what if you don’t know the IP address of the computer you want to connect to? What if the you need to access a web server referred to as www.anothercomputer.com? How does your web browser know where on the Internet this computer lives? The answer to all these questions is the Domain Name Service or DNS. The DNS is a distributed database which keeps track of computer’s names and their corresponding IP addresses on the Internet.
Many computers connected to the Internet host part of the DNS database and the software that allows others to access it. These computers are known as DNS servers. No DNS server contains the entire database; they only contain a subset of it. If a DNS server does not contain the domain name requested by another computer, the DNS server re-directs the requesting computer to another DNS server.
Diagram 6
Diagram 6
The Domain Name Service is structured as a hierarchy similar to the IP routing hierarchy. The computer requesting a name resolution will be re-directed ‘up’ the hierarchy until a DNS server is found that can resolve the domain name in the request. Figure 6 illustrates a portion of the hierarchy. At the top of the tree are the domain roots. Some of the older, more common domains are seen near the top. What is not shown are the multitude of DNS servers around the world which form the rest of the hierarchy.
When an Internet connection is setup (e.g. for a LAN or Dial-Up Networking in Windows), one primary and one or more secondary DNS servers are usually specified as part of the installation. This way, any Internet applications that need domain name resolution will be able to function correctly. For example, when you enter a web address into your web browser, the browser first connects to your primary DNS server. After obtaining the IP address for the domain name you entered, the browser then connects to the target computer and requests the web page you wanted.
Check It Out – Disable DNS in Windows
If you’re using Windows 95/NT and access the Internet, you may view your DNS server(s) and even disable them.If you use Dial-Up Networking:
Open your Dial-Up Networking window (which can be found in Windows Explorer under your CD-ROM drive and above Network Neighborhood). Right click on your Internet connection and click Properties. Near the bottom of the connection properties window press the TCP/IP Settings… button.
If you have a permanent connection to the Internet:
Right click on Network Neighborhood and click Properties. Click TCP/IP Properties. Select the DNS Configuration tab at the top.
You should now be looking at your DNS servers’ IP addresses. Here you may disable DNS or set your DNS servers to 0.0.0.0. (Write down your DNS servers’ IP addresses first. You will probably have to restart Windows as well.) Now enter an address into your web browser. The browser won’t be able to resolve the domain name and you will probably get a nasty dialog box explaining that a DNS server couldn’t be found. However, if you enter the corresponding IP address instead of the domain name, the browser will be able to retrieve the desired web page. (Use ping to get the IP address prior to disabling DNS.) Other Microsoft operating systems are similar.

Internet Protocols Revisited

As hinted to earlier in the section about protocol stacks, one may surmise that there are many protocols that are used on the Internet. This is true; there are many communication protocols required for the Internet to function. These include the TCP and IP protocols, routing protocols, medium access control protocols, application level protocols, etc. The following sections describe some of the more important and commonly used protocols on the Internet. Higher level protocols are discussed first, followed by lower level protocols.

Application Protocols: HTTP and the World Wide Web

One of the most commonly used services on the Internet is the World Wide Web (WWW). The application protocol that makes the web work is Hypertext Transfer Protocol or HTTP. Do not confuse this with the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). HTML is the language used to write web pages. HTTP is the protocol that web browsers and web servers use to communicate with each other over the Internet. It is an application level protocol because it sits on top of the TCP layer in the protocol stack and is used by specific applications to talk to one another. In this case the applications are web browsers and web servers.
HTTP is a connectionless text based protocol. Clients (web browsers) send requests to web servers for web elements such as web pages and images. After the request is serviced by a server, the connection between client and server across the Internet is disconnected. A new connection must be made for each request. Most protocols are connection oriented. This means that the two computers communicating with each other keep the connection open over the Internet. HTTP does not however. Before an HTTP request can be made by a client, a new connection must be made to the server.
When you type a URL into a web browser, this is what happens:
  1. If the URL contains a domain name, the browser first connects to a domain name server and retrieves the corresponding IP address for the web server.
  2. The web browser connects to the web server and sends an HTTP request (via the protocol stack) for the desired web page.
  3. The web server receives the request and checks for the desired page. If the page exists, the web server sends it. If the server cannot find the requested page, it will send an HTTP 404 error message. (404 means ‘Page Not Found’ as anyone who has surfed the web probably knows.)
  4. The web browser receives the page back and the connection is closed.
  5. The browser then parses through the page and looks for other page elements it needs to complete the web page. These usually include images, applets, etc.
  6. For each element needed, the browser makes additional connections and HTTP requests to the server for each element.
  7. When the browser has finished loading all images, applets, etc. the page will be completely loaded in the browser window.
Check It Out – Use Your Telnet Client to Retrieve a Web Page Using HTTP
Telnet is a remote terminal service used on the Internet. It’s use has declined lately, but it is a very useful tool to study the Internet. In Windows find the default telnet program. It may be located in the Windows directory named telnet.exe. When opened, pull down the Terminal menu and select Preferences. In the preferences window, check Local Echo. (This is so you can see your HTTP request when you type it.) Now pull down the Connection menu and select Remote System. Enter www.google.com for the Host Name and 80 for the Port. (Web servers usually listen on port 80 by default.) Press Connect. Now typeGET / HTTP/1.0
and press Enter twice. This is a simple HTTP request to a web server for it’s root page. You should see a web page flash by and then a dialog box should pop up to tell you the connection was lost. If you’d like to save the retrieved page, turn on logging in the Telnet program. You may then browse through the web page and see the HTML that was used to write it.
Most Internet protocols are specified by Internet documents known as a Request For Comments or RFCs. RFCs may be found at several locations on the Internet. See the Resources section below for appropriate URL’s. HTTP version 1.0 is specified by RFC 1945.

Application Protocols: SMTP and Electronic Mail

Another commonly used Internet service is electronic mail. E-mail uses an application level protocol calledSimple Mail Transfer Protocol or SMTP. SMTP is also a text based protocol, but unlike HTTP, SMTP is connection oriented. SMTP is also more complicated than HTTP. There are many more commands and considerations in SMTP than there are in HTTP.
When you open your mail client to read your e-mail, this is what typically happens:
  1. The mail client (Netscape Mail, Lotus Notes, Microsoft Outlook, etc.) opens a connection to it’s default mail server. The mail server’s IP address or domain name is typically setup when the mail client is installed.
  2. The mail server will always transmit the first message to identify itself.
  3. The client will send an SMTP HELO command to which the server will respond with a 250 OK message.
  4. Depending on whether the client is checking mail, sending mail, etc. the appropriate SMTP commands will be sent to the server, which will respond accordingly.
  5. This request/response transaction will continue until the client sends an SMTP QUIT command. The server will then say goodbye and the connection will be closed.
A simple ‘conversation’ between an SMTP client and SMTP server is shown below. R: denotes messages sent by the server (receiver) and S: denotes messages sent by the client (sender).
      This SMTP example shows mail sent by Smith at host USC-ISIF, to
Jones, Green, and Brown at host BBN-UNIX. Here we assume that
host USC-ISIF contacts host BBN-UNIX directly. The mail is
accepted for Jones and Brown. Green does not have a mailbox at
host BBN-UNIX.

-------------------------------------------------------------

R: 220 BBN-UNIX.ARPA Simple Mail Transfer Service Ready
S: HELO USC-ISIF.ARPA
R: 250 BBN-UNIX.ARPA

S: MAIL FROM:<Smith@USC-ISIF.ARPA>
R: 250 OK

S: RCPT TO:<Jones@BBN-UNIX.ARPA>
R: 250 OK

S: RCPT TO:<Green@BBN-UNIX.ARPA>
R: 550 No such user here

S: RCPT TO:<Brown@BBN-UNIX.ARPA>
R: 250 OK

S: DATA
R: 354 Start mail input; end with <CRLF>.<CRLF>
S: Blah blah blah...
S: ...etc. etc. etc.
S: .
R: 250 OK

S: QUIT
R: 221 BBN-UNIX.ARPA Service closing transmission channel
This SMTP transaction is taken from RFC 821, which specifies SMTP.

Transmission Control Protocol

Under the application layer in the protocol stack is the TCP layer. When applications open a connection to another computer on the Internet, the messages they send (using a specific application layer protocol) get passed down the stack to the TCP layer. TCP is responsible for routing application protocols to the correct application on the destination computer. To accomplish this, port numbers are used. Ports can be thought of as separate channels on each computer. For example, you can surf the web while reading e-mail. This is because these two applications (the web browser and the mail client) used different port numbers. When a packet arrives at a computer and makes its way up the protocol stack, the TCP layer decides which application receives the packet based on a port number.
TCP works like this:
  • When the TCP layer receives the application layer protocol data from above, it segments it into manageable ‘chunks’ and then adds a TCP header with specific TCP information to each ‘chunk’. The information contained in the TCP header includes the port number of the application the data needs to be sent to.
  • When the TCP layer receives a packet from the IP layer below it, the TCP layer strips the TCP header data from the packet, does some data reconstruction if necessary, and then sends the data to the correct application using the port number taken from the TCP header.
This is how TCP routes the data moving through the protocol stack to the correct application.
TCP is not a textual protocol. TCP is a connection-oriented, reliable, byte stream service. Connection-oriented means that two applications using TCP must first establish a connection before exchanging data. TCP is reliable because for each packet received, an acknowledgement is sent to the sender to confirm the delivery. TCP also includes a checksum in it’s header for error-checking the received data. The TCP header looks like this:
Diagram 7
Diagram 7
Notice that there is no place for an IP address in the TCP header. This is because TCP doesn’t know anything about IP addresses. TCP’s job is to get application level data from application to application reliably. The task of getting data from computer to computer is the job of IP.
Check It Out – Well Known Internet Port Numbers
Listed below are the port numbers for some of the more commonly used Internet services.
FTP20/21
Telnet23
SMTP25
HTTP80
Quake III Arena27960

Internet Protocol

Unlike TCP, IP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol. IP doesn’t care whether a packet gets to it’s destination or not. Nor does IP know about connections and port numbers. IP’s job is too send and route packets to other computers. IP packets are independent entities and may arrive out of order or not at all. It is TCP’s job to make sure packets arrive and are in the correct order. About the only thing IP has in common with TCP is the way it receives data and adds it’s own IP header information to the TCP data. The IP header looks like this:
Diagram 8
Diagram 8
Above we see the IP addresses of the sending and receiving computers in the IP header. Below is what a packet looks like after passing through the application layer, TCP layer, and IP layer. The application layer data is segmented in the TCP layer, the TCP header is added, the packet continues to the IP layer, the IP header is added, and then the packet is transmitted across the Internet.
Diagram 9
Diagram 9

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